Assignment: Paper- E-C- 203. Literary Criticism: Western & Indian Poetics-2

Topic: Northrop Frye’s Archetypal Criticism.

Student’ name: Payal G Patel

Roll no: 18

M.A.Sem- II

Batch:  2010- ‘11

Submitted to – Prof. Dilip Barad.

Department of English

Bhavnagar University

Bhavnagar.

 Northrop Frye’s Archetypal Criticism

First, the question may rise what is Archetypal Criticism? And the answer of this is in literary criticism the term archetype suggests narrative designs, patterns of action, character types  themes and images which are known to a wide variety of works of literature also to myths, dreams , and even social rituals. Carl G. Jung (1875-1961) says it the “collective unconsciousness “of the human race and are expressed in myths, religion, dreams also in works of literature. Thus in literature it becomes an archetypal criticism.

It is generally said that there are many practitioners of various types of archetypal criticism like G.Wilson Knight, Robert Graves, Philip Wheelwright, Richard Chase, Leslie Fiedler and Joseph Campbell. They have emphasized on the events of mythical patterns in literature. They believe that myths are closest to the archetypal literature rather than the writers who write only for the sake of their fame.

Northrop Frye’s Contribution to the archetypal criticism:

 Frye has written “The Archetypes of Literature “in 1951 and then “Anatomy of Criticism “in 1957 which is his on e of the well- renowned works. In his book “Anatomy of Criticism “Frye has covered most of the archetypal approaches in the theory of literature and the practice of literary criticism.

In his “ Archetypes of Literature” Frye outlines a theory of the arts in general and literature in particular which would be developed more fully in his celebrated “ Anatomy of Criticism”.

Frye’s project is to identify and classify the archetypes of literature. The four ‘mythoi’ that we are dealing with like, comedy, romance, tragedy and irony or satire.

Frye uses the season in his archetypal schema. Each season is attached with a literary genre, for example; comedy with spring, romance with summer, tragedy with autumn, and satire or irony with winter.

The information of season how they deal with these literary genres is as under;

(1)   Comedy:

                       It is aligned with spring because comedy suggests the birth of the hero, revival and resurrection. It also suggests the new creation as well as the power over the darkness. Similarly spring symbolizes the defeat of winter and darkness. In spring also there is the new creation in trees which symbolizes the similarities between comedy and spring.

(2)    Romance:

                  It is aligned with summer because summer is the culmination of life in the seasonal calendar, the western countries. Similarly romance, the genre, culminates with some sort of triumph, especially in a marriage.

(3)    Autumn:

                 It is aligned with tragedy. As autumn is the dying stage in the seasonal calendar, similarly the genre, tragedy symbolizes the ‘fall of hero or heroine or protagonist.  Autumn itself symbolizes the fall and which is considered to be melancholic.

(4)   Satire :

            Satire or Irony is paralleled to winter as they symbolize the ‘dark’ genres. Satire is one type of mocking act. It is noted for its darkness, dissolution, and the return of chaos and the defeat of the heroic figure. Like satire, sometimes, the winter is very cruel in western countries as they are similar by work.

Now Frye gives the context of a genre determines how a symbol an image is to be interpreted. He gives five different views of different fields like human, animal, vegetation, mineral, and water.

(1) Human:

             The comedic human world is representative of wish –fulfillment. In its contrast, the tragic human world is of isolation, tyranny, and the fallen hero. Thus, in different world, the roles of different humans do not change.

(2) Animals

              The comedic animal world suggest the docile and pastoral animals (for example cow, sheep etc.) whereas in the tragic animal world they are like hunters, predatory (for example wolves, leopard etc.)

(3) Vegetation :

                     The comedic realm of vegetation is pastoral as well as gardens, parks also symbolizes roses and lotuses. And the tragic realm of vegetation is like a wild forest or sometime a sterile or barren place.

(4) Mineral:

              The comedic mineral realm represents cities, temples or precious stones. The tragic mineral realm represents desert, ruined places.

(5) Water:

              At last, the comedic realm of water is represented by rivers. And in tragic realm by seas, especially by floods. Thus from all these, we may say that structure approach is based on archetypes (for example flood, sea etc.)

There are two ways to proceed: (1) inductive

                                                               (2) Deductive

The word inductive suggests looking for patterns, or, making educated guesses.

The word deductive means to look for consequences look for coherence and try to categories.

So, in this way, this section deals with deductive way.

 Archetypal Criticism as “a new poetics”

                                                                 For Frye, this, ‘New Poetics’ is to be found in the principle of the mythological framework, which as come to be known as “archetypal Criticism”. Essentially: “what criticism can do? According to Frye “is awaken students to successive levels of awareness of the mythology that lies behind the ideology in which their society indoctrinates them.”  (Stingle 4)

Unlike Freud’s concepts, myths are collective and communal and so bring a sense of wholeness and togetherness to social life. People and the whole civilized have their own mythologies, but there may be the common Jung called ‘archetypes’.

The mythology of the classical world provided themes for some of the world’s greatest drama, and similar themes can be found in Renaissance literature through to modern Poetry. For example; Hamlet, is often seen as the reluctant hero who must sacrifice himself to purify a Denmark which is made diseased, impious by the murder of its king. In our Indian myth, we have also a character like Hamlet named ‘Arjuna’ in “Mahabharata” who feels the same hesitation to fight with his relatives, thus, the myth is carried on by the skillful writers. Even Yeats, Pound and Eliot employ the myths of history, rebirth and fulfillment through sacrifice, as other do.

There are Frye’s four essays titled,

(1) “Historical Criticism”- A Theory of Modes.

(2) “Ethical Criticism” – A Theory of Symbols.

(3) “ Archetypal Criticism” – A Theory of Myths and

(4) “Rhetorical Criticism” – A Theory of Genres.

From all these we are concerned with Frye’s “Archetypal Criticism” which suggest a theory of myths. This third essay has possibility been Frye’s most identifying the four seasons with four main plots or ‘mythoi’ as we have seen earlier.

Archetypes fall into two categories: Characters and Situation / symbols. With examples these categories will become easier to understand. There are some common archetypes in each category of the characters which are as under;

Characters:

(1)    The Hero:

             The courageous figure, good character than the villain. For example Hamlet, Macbeth, Tom Jones, etc.

(2)    The outcast:

                He or she has been out casted from society. For example in Indian myths there are characters like Pandvas, Ram- Sita- Laxman, Sugreev, Vibhishan etc.

(3)    The Scapegoat :

                        The scapegoat figure is the one who gets blamed for every thing.  No one try to understand whether he or she is really at fault or nor. For example Tom Jones, Ophelia in “Hamlet”, etc.

(4)    The Star-Crossed Lovers:

                               This is a young couple joined by love but unexpectedly parted by fate. For example Romeo and Juliet, Heer and Ranjha, Heathcliff and Catherine from “Wuthering Heights”, etc.

(5)    Femme Fatale:

              A female character type who brings upon disastrous events. For example, Eve in “Paradise Lost” , Sita in “ Ramayana”  also Surparnakha, Draupadi in “ Mahabharata”, Catherine in “ Wuthering Heights”, etc.

(6)    The Shrew :

             This is that nagging, bothersome wife always battering her husband with verbal abuse. For example; Lizzy’s mother in “Pride and Prejudice” , Lady Macbeth in “ Macbeth”, Mrs. Bumble in “ Oliver Twist”, etc

(7)    The Journey :

        A narrative archetype where the protagonist must overcome a series of obstacles before reaching his or her goal. For example; Oliver Twist, Tom Jones, Rama, etc.

 Now, the category is of situation or symbols. There are many archetypal symbols than the characters and which are deep rooted in a culture’s mythology, such as a forbidden fruit in “Paradise Lost”, similarly the poison apple in “Snow White”. There are many others like,

(1)    The Task:

         There is a situation in which a character or characters have to complete some duties. For example; the task to bring Helen back from Troy, Kurukshetra Battle for Arjun, Savitri’s desire to get back Satyakam’s life etc.

(2)    The quest :

        The characters search for something whether consciously or unconsciously. Their action, thoughts, feelings are centered around the goal of completing this quest. For example Rama’s search  for Sita, Nal- Damyanti’s search for each other,  Savitri’s search for Satyakam’s life, etc.

(3)    Water :

         It is symbol of life as well as death also rebirth. It is also strong life force. Symbolizes creation, purification and redemption also fertility and growth.

(4)    Sea/ Ocean :

           It symbolizes death or rebirth, timelessness and eternity.

(5)     Sun :

    It symbolizes creative energy like fire, thinking, enlightenment, wisdom, spiritual wisdom, piousness, dawn etc.

Rising sun symbolizes birth, creation, enlightenment.

While setting sun symbolizes death.

(6)     Colors :

(a)  Red : Symbolizes sacrifice, passion, disorder

(b) Green: symbolizes growth, hope, fertility.

(c)  Blue: symbolizes highly positive, secure, tranquil, spiritual purity.

(d) Black: symbolizes darkness, chaos, mystery, the unknown, melancholy, death, evil, danger.

(e) White: symbolizes light, purity innocence, in negative sense symbolizes death, terror, supernatural.

(f)   Yellow: symbolizes enlightenment, wisdom.

The characters like snake symbolizes energy and pure force, evil, corruption, destruction

Numbers like 3 symbolizes light, spiritual awareness, unity (the Holy Trinity)

‘4’ number symbolizes four seasons, earth, nature, life cycle etc.

‘7’ number symbolizes religious things perfect order, union of three and four etc.

Wise old Man: symbolizes savior, redeemer, guru, represents knowledge, wisdom, insight and morality. Even in “Doctor Faustus” there is the appearance of an Old man. In Indian myth Bhishm “Mahabharata” as an old wise man.

Garden:  Symbolizes paradise, innocence, unspoiled beauty.

Trees: Symbolizes life, growth, immortality etc.

Desert: Symbolizes death, hopelessness.

Season: we have already seen the symbols of the seasons before.

Thus, these are the archetypal symbols. One thing we may add is there may be different cultures and myths. For example, we hare, have different symbolic meanings in Indian culture 13 number is considered to be unfortunate and with some bad impact upon the person. Similarly red color symbolizes piousness foe example red Swastika.

Archetypes in Indian Literature.

                                    The concept of Indian literature is both old as well as new. It is as old as Bharata and it is as modern as Tagore. And it is better to see Indian literature not as a process.

 Dr. K. Chellappan writes,

“The myth is the central information power that gives archetypal significant to the rituals and archetypal narrative to the oracle.”

In the Indian tradition also there is the quest myth as an archetype, through there are significant differences. For example Rama’s quest for his wife Sita is parallel to the quest of Adam for Eve and finally it symbolizes the quest of Christ God for man. Rama was both a hero and a God, but the emphasis changes. In Valmiki he is more a hero than a God. In Tulsidas, on the other hand we see more of a God in Rama.

In a sense, Rama is self and Ravana, the ego and Sita is the Jeevatma represents the yearning of the soul for the greater soul, just as all the devotees represent the same division and longing for union at him has noble qualities; but after a sage he becomes frozen beyond redemption like Dr. Faustus and Victor Frankenstein.

In all modern versions of the “Ramayana” and the “Mahabharata” the myth we find Panchali (Draupadi) and Sita are protesting against the male tyranny.

Arjun in “the Mahabharata” is the archetype of the hero unable to act because of attachments and in Karma, we see the tragic hero seeking identity and dying a heroic death because of his very generosity. Arjuna’s situation is some like of Hamlet’s. Thus, the archetypes are the same, through the realizations are different.

Even in the poem “The Voice of a Poet”, written by Praveen Gadhvi, there is the concept of ‘Drinking’ to which we can relate with the myth of creation. For example, in the “Ramayana’s Baalkanda, in canto 45, written by Valmiki, there is the incident of “ Samuda Manthan” which says after churning of the Ocean both nector (amrita) and venom (Vish) erupted. Gods (devtas), enjoyed nector and Shiva consumed the poison. Which significantly suggests, in modern time, the poet can digest the things like Shiva, another possible interpretation is that after churning of life we can get different troubles, sufferings etc. But only few people can digest the things. Thus, these are the possible interpretation of the Indian myth with the archetypal criticism.

 Conclusion:

                 To sun up, Richter explains that for Frye:

“Each generation rewrites the stories of the past in ways that make sense for it, recycling a vast tradition over the ages.” (641)

 About mythology, as it is the third theory of the essay ‘Archetypal Criticism’, Frye points out there are only a few species of myth though there are an infinite numbers of individual myths. For example, these species or archetypes of myths include “myths of creation, of fall, of exodus and migration of the destruction, of the human race in the past or the future, and of redemption,” (23).

Assignment: Paper E-C-204 . The Victorian Literature

Topic: Art of characterization is an estate Dickens has in a bundle. – Explain.

Student’s name: Payal G patel

Roll no: 18

M.A. Sem- II

Batch: 2010-‘11

Submitted to – Miss. Ruchira Dudhrejiya

Department of English

Bhavnagar University

Bhavnagar.

Art of Characterization is an estate Dickens has in a Bundle. Explain.

It is truly said that characters are the representation of society whether it may be the society of Neo-Classical Age or of Victorian Age or any other Age. Similarly, Charles Dickens has made well-prepared bundle of characters. Like the bundle of notes, Dickens ‘ bundle of characters is like an estate, For example in bicycle each of the rods connecting to the center of a wheel to its rim, similarly all the characters in Dickens’ famous novel “ Oliver Twist”, are directly or indirectly connected with the protagonist named Oliver. This is Dickens ‘art to bring all the characters together.

 All the characters are connected with Oliver through whom Dickens makes Oliver the center while other characters are like its rods or spokes which are connected to Oliver, the center. Another thing which should be noted down about the characteristics of Dickens’ art of characterization is his representation of society during his time through various types of characters. For example; Oliver presents the events of exploitation which was in vogue during the Victorian Age.

“Oliver Twist” gives us an impression of the social situation at the time, it was written. Story telling of Dickens if filled with humor and pathos of the characters. This is his moral purpose of writings. He has given his views on poverty and class distinction through characters.

Dickens uses lots of symbolism in this novel “Oliver Twist”, through characters. For example,

Oliver Twist:

              Dickens’ choice of Oliver’s name is very revealing because this boy’s story is full of “twists and turns”. Through Oliver Dickens has presented the pathos of innocent childhood, and protest against the abuses of power, especially on the part of governmental institutions. The sentence spoken by Oliver,

 “Please sir! I want some more.”

Symbolizes the condition of the orphans, and the poor children at that time. They were given less food to be eaten, so as they can work without being lazy and hard work was virtue at that time. His story demonstrates the hypocrisy of the petty middle-class. The society was divided into two classes like “Haves” and “Haves not”. And Oliver’s weaknesses are the limitations of the young children. These young children are not expected to organize orphans to protest against evils of work houses. A boy like Oliver naturally lacks courage to contact police and to get Fagin and his gang arrested. There is also a possibility behind Oliver’s character that Dickens’ own childhood experiences, and life of the poor condition has been portrayed through Oliver’s life.

Mr. Bumble:

                       He is the beadle in the town where Oliver is born. Mr. Bumble likes power, and he likes to use it upon the lower class people or the laborers of the workhouse. This symbolizes people’s love for power; love to become master through the character of Bumble. The very word Bumble suggests the bumbling characters. They are getting the things but they can’t digest the beliefs.

When Oliver pours his heart out to him on the way to Mr. Sowerberry’s and says, “ I feel  as if I had been cut here, sir, and it was all bleeding away, and the child beat his hand upon his heart, and looked into his companion’s face with tears of real agony” (4.45) Mr. Bumble, here, is actually moved. He has a heart but the trouble is that he does not act on his pity; he seems to feel like it’s a weakness, and he does not want to lose face. He seems to think that he will not be respected if he shows pity to anyone. Here, we have the notions of the society that people will not show pity because they want respect. Also suggests that the people cannot live real life, they have to wear masks to survive or for survival.  Dickens has, through Mr. Bumble’s character, shown the weaknesses of the people. Mr. Bumble is considered to be round character, as he behaves differently in various situations. He gets married with Miss. Corney to become the master of the workhouse. But situations are different here, Mrs. Bumble beats him and humiliates him, and we almost pity him but then we are reminded how much he used to enjoy beating and humiliating the paupers and orphans. Dickens, here, seems to symbolize the poetic justice through Bumble’s character that,

“As you sow, so shall you reap.”

Mrs.Corney:

                        She is very cruel, distrustful and power-hungry. Dickens uses her to satirize the workhouse system that was run by people who are more interested in taking care of themselves than of the poor. This character is flat, remains the same, the cruel throughout the novel.  This character also symbolizes power struggle at that time.

The Sowerberrys:

                               Dickens has very cleverly used the names of different characters which are related to their nature and life. Here, the name Sowerberry symbolizes the sour berries like Mr. And Mrs. Sowerberry. Mr. Sowerberry is the undertaker to whom Oliver is apprenticed. Dickens, through this character, suggests how the undertakers deal with death. For them death needs to be unending. Their lives are in others death. It was a part of their day to day activity, their profession. Death is the livelihood for them. They are not attached with the lives of others but they are different from other class, suggest class discrimination. Here, Dickens, from these, raises the question like “do the Victorian people have the life in real sense?”

People have become just money- minded, power hungers. Dickens seems to deal with just LIFE and nothing else.

Noah Claypole:

                         He is a typical minor character but signifies a sharp point of society. In this novel he is a grotesque, absurd and exaggerated character. Noah is a pretty fun character. He starts out the novel as an apprentice in Mr.Sowerberry’s  shop. He was a charity boy, and other kids made fun of him. So, as soon as Oliver arrives, Noah is pretty happy about having someone ever lower on the social ladder than he is. This incident or idea suggest the concept of,

“Slaves become the masters.”

Noah wants to master Oliver, suggest the cycle of exploitation. Oppression systems are working. They exploit the people who have no strength, power, money. It is all about,

“The struggle for power.”

The Artful Dodger:

                                 This character is also known as jack Dowkings, which is actually his real name. He is one of the most famous and memorable characters in the novel. He cannot be more than twelve, but he acts like a full grown man, and even wears men’s cloths. He talks and walks like a man and the contrast between his size and his attitude is quite funny. The question again raised why does he do such things? And the answer repeats itself is; for power, wants to become master like Fagin.

Fagin:

           Fagin in real sense a bad person. Dickens often refers to him only as “the Jew”, and a lot of traditional racial stereotypes against Jewish people are used: he’s miserly, has red hair, and is a corrupter of children. This clearly shows that Dickens was an anti-Semite. Fagin is the flat character because throughout the novel he is the same.

Mr. Brownlow:

                       He is Oliver’s first friend; he has faith in people, though he has seen the cruelty of society. He is kind of a book warm, the first time we see him, he is so absorbed in reading a book at a bookseller’s stand in the street that does not notice the Dodger and Charley trying to pick up his pocket. He is also loyal friend. This incident suggests that there are also some people who do not notice such cruelties in the society. To be excessive kind is also curse during that time as he suffers the things in his life. There is also another possible interpretation that during that time, there are also some people who are well-read and well- mannered. His character is concerned to be flat character.

Bill Sikes:

                  He seeks power as usual the tendency of the Victorian people. Is there anything at all likable about Sikes? The very first question rises here, because we all know how cruel his character is portrayed. Sikes is brave and strong. He is stubborn, distrustful and has some anger management issues. Another question raised is “ where did Dickens get the idea for such a character?” where there was actually a historical criminal named James Sikes who lived (and was  hanged) in the 1720s- a period of criminal history that Dickens was particularly interested in. And from this, we may say that, perhaps, Dickens might be impressed by the issue of him at that time in his novel. Human beings as well as animal afraid of him, symbolizes his pitilessness. He is a flat character.

Nancy:

            Nancy might be the most complicated character of the novel. Thus, she is a round character. Despite being a relatively minor character, she has a very important role to play. The question like why does she help Oliver? What the turning point of her? Arise.

She seems to be reminded of her own lost innocence when she looks at Oliver. In one of the chapters Nancy seems to think that, she says,

“I am chained to my old life.  I loathe and hate it now, but I can not leave it. I must have hated it now, but I can not leave it. I must have gone too far to turn back [...]” (46.74)

This idea of having gone too far to turn back” seems very much in keeping with the rest of the novel. Once you turn down the wrong path, there is no turning back; perhaps Dickens seems to show this reality, even if it means returning to your violent and menacing lover only to be brutally murdered. This novel seems to take a pretty bleak view of forgiveness and redemption.

Those who may be considered prosperous enough to be reasonably well fed give a symbolic contrast to poverty and under-nourishment. For example, the parish board is made up of “ eight or ten fat gentlemen” ; the workhouse master is a “ fat, healthy man”; Mr. Bumble is a “ portly person” ;  Gilles is fat and Brittle by no means of a slim figure ; Mr. Loseberne is “ a fat gentleman” , and one of the Bow street runners is “ a portly man”. Other users are how evil people are described as dangerous animals or as typical stage villains. The weather is usually cold and rainy when bad things happen. Which symbolize many things regarding the events and reality of different technique by the novelist. For example Dickens has used symbolic settings, like, night scenes are more in this novel.

 There are also many other characters, who have been described poignantly by Dickens like Mrs. Mann who has not any quality of woman but a man. She lacks the maternal affection. Toby Crackit, who creaks into houses. Then Miss Rose Maylie symbolizes the qualities like flower, is as fresh, delicate, pure and natural as a rose.

Conclusion:

 To the conclusion, we may say clearly that Charles Dickens has presented the burning issues of his time in a different way. The novel “Oliver Twist”, in this sense appeals to the universal level. In this novel the Victorian English culture is presented. Individual Freedom, here, comes at the center. The impact of industrial revolution can be felt.  Industrial advancement created social unrest and economic distress among the masses. It divided society into two “Haves” and “Haves not”. There developed slums in which people, particularly working class people were living like worms in mud. Exploitation and materialistic outlook towards life gave birth to crimes. And these social evils were severely criticized by Charles Dickens in his novel s through different characters.

Thus, this novel, “Oliver Twist” is a well prepared bundle of characters, events and realities presented through imagination.

Assignment: Paper E-E-205(A) Comparative Literature

Topic: What is Comparative Literature today? How CL came into Being?

Student’s name: Payal G Patel

Roll no: 18

M.A. Sem- II

Batch: 2010-‘11

Submitted to – Prof. Dilip Barad.

Department of English

Bhavnagar University

Bhavnagar.

What is Comparative Literature today? How it Came into being?

First of all, the question to our mind may arise what is Comparative Literature and how far it is good for the students.  Another question may also arise whether Comparative study is serious or not. And the answer we get is, it is new term in literature which is concerned with patterns of connection in literature across both time and space. One possibility we should note down is most of the readers do not start with comparative literature but they end up with it in some way or other way.

Matthew Arnold, has, in his Inaugural Lecture at Oxford in 1857, said in this regard,

“Everywhere there is connection, everywhere there is illustration. No single event, no single literature is adequately comprehended except in relation to other events, to other literatures.”

Similarly, Comparative literature is linked with another literature for instance it is connected with translation literature. It can be said that anyone who has an interest in reading books, he can easily go for comparative literature or who can compare the things at different levels.

In sincere manner, comparative literature is an academic field dealing with the literature of two or more different linguistic, cultural or national groups. It is also included in the range of inquiry are comparisons, a relationship of film to literature. (For example: literature is “Five point someone” and film is “3 idiots” both are related with each other).

This term was coined at the beginning of the nineteenth century and continues still today. In 1903, Benedetto Croce argued that Comparative literature was a non-subject. Then he discussed the definition of comparative literature as the exploration of ‘the vicissitudes, alterations, developments and reciprocal differences’ of themes and literary ideas across literature, and concluded that ‘there is no study more arid than researches of this sort.’

Croce argues that the term ‘Comparative literature’ is confusing, and he believes that the true sense of study is literary history because he did not find any distinction between pure and simple literature history and comparative literary history.

Thus, Croce gives his views about the comparative literature considering it as a non-subject.

In the 1920s Lane Cooper called the term comparative literature a ‘bogus term’, ‘one that makes neither sense nor syntax’, and added, we may say “comparative potatoes”, or “comparative husks”. Even Cooper in a way considers it as a non- subject.

There is also the influence of new criticism upon the literature. As new criticism takes no note of the texts, the contrast raises here because CL is more dependant upon the texts, the number of texts. But here, the argument is that among new critics, T.S.Eliot is also included, through his work “Tradition and Individual Talent”, he seems somewhere in favor of comparative literature because the very function of tradition is to compare and contrast and find out the ways and works in which tradition works. So, in a way, New Criticism is connected with comparative literature.

‘Comparative literature’ implies a study of literature which uses comparison as its main instrument. It is true that in comparative literature the process of comparison is important but with that the product is also significant. As Harry Levin complained in 1969;

“We spend far too much of our talking...about comparative Literature and not enough of it comparing the literature.”

                                                                       [Levin: 74-90]

These concepts of process and product remind us of the different schools like French School, the German School, the American School, and the British School etc. And for American what is important is process.

American School:

                             As we have got the idea of Americans that they are interested in process. They believe that the product we already get at last but what about the process. It is as important as translation literature has. The interdisciplinary is found in their approach. The approach of the American School would be familiar to current practitioners of cultural studies also.

French School:

                           It deals with positivism, means it is more interested in experiments and observations. The conclusion comes from their experiments and minute observation. Here, the scholars work forensically, where every detail is noted down. In the French school of comparative literature also there is the influence over studies. Product is more important for French.

German School:

                            It deals with the idea of Zeitgeist or “spirit of the times”. Comparative literature began as a part of literary history rather than literary criticism or theory. Kasper Daniel Morhof is the person who actually founded the study. Goethe used the term “Weltliteratur” or world literature suggest that of ‘General Literature’. A difference is made between what is called ‘comparative Literature’. R.A.Sayce has given the differences between these two:

 “General Literature’ as ‘the study of literature without regard to   linguistic frontiers’ , Comparative Literature as the study of national literature in relation to each other.”

This is very remarkable distinction, from this we get the idea that the concept of ‘national literature is not without its problems, and these two kinds of study are linked with each-other. For example when we trace the development of the sonnet in European language since Petrarch’s time as we do when we discuss about literary theory, poetics and principles of criticism in a supra-national context. But when we compare a Shakespearean sonnet with a Petrarchan one, we are within the area of ‘comparative Literature’. Thus, we may say that these two activities are inseparable.

In his ‘wiltliteratur’, Goethe seems to suggest that awareness of national traditions other than our own, openness to works written in other countries and other languages is also necessary. His “weltliteratur”is in a way, clearly related to Comparative Literature.

In the book named ‘Discrimination’ there is the definition of ‘comparative literary study, thus;

“An examination of literary texts (including works of literary theory and criticism) in more than one language, through an investigation of contrast, analogy, provenance or influence: or a study of literary relations and communications between two or more groups that speak different languages.”

There is a contrast with this passage, by Claude Pichois andA.M.Rousseau, that one cannot be a comparatist unless one deals with more than one national culture. Henry. H. Remark also tried to define comparative literary studies, as he said,

Comparative literature is “the studies of relationships between literature on one hand and the other areas of knowledge and belief, such as the arts, philosophy, history, the social sciences, the sciences, religion etc. on the other hand.”

We also should give value to Anthony Thorley’s words. His ideas are quite well that comparative literature helps us to analyze the works of art. And to compare the thing we should have another similar kind of thing. And to prove this concept he gives examples of one building that to compare one building there should be another building with some similar qualities so as we can compare it in real sense. From all these we are reminded of the conditions of comparative literature that we have to choose two things or texts. If we do not choose the two, comparative Literature would not allow. In which uncommon things are not important but common things are more important as well as long-lasting. Through comparative there is the impact of one literature to another literature. If we study comparative literature and we cannot judge the works, then our study is still incomplete. In this literature what is more important is what we picked up from the text and what did we reject?  There are many universal themes to which we can classify under several meta-themes and which are always fresh and evergreen like love, war, marriage, family, moral upliftment, moral degeneration, justice, injustice, jealousy etc. The person who compares the thing is now comparatist should be polyglot. As Wellek and Warren in their book “Theory of Literature” in 1949, said that;

 “Comparative Literature... will make high demands on the linguistic proficiencies of our scholars. It asks for a widening of perspective, a suppression of local and provincial sentiments, not easy to achieve.”

They both emphasize on the skills that the comparatist must possess. This comparative literature is quite difficult and challenging that one should be very careful while comparing the texts.

“Literature without borders”

                                                This comparative literature is considered as the literature without borders to some extent. For example, the scholar studies literary and social status in the Americas, medieval epic and romance as well as mythology in the other country and colonial and postcolonial writings in different parts of the world. So, from all these scholars in comparative Literature share is a desire to study literature beyond national boundaries and an interest text in their original form. Many corporatists also share their literary experiences with other culture such as historical change, philosophical concepts, and social movements. In this way literature becomes borderless.

So, this is how comparative literature works and what the characteristics to this process of comparative literature are. With these, one should also remember

                      “How comparative Literature came into being.”

First this comparative literature acquired its name from a series of French anthologies used for the teaching of literature, published in 1816 and entitled “Cours de literature Comparee.” Here, again Rene Wellek argued that this title was ‘unused and unexplained’ but he also observes how this term has been introduced in 1820s-1830s in France. Many ok the writers like one German writer, Matthew Arnold etc, have also referred to ‘comparative literature’ in their writings earlier. So, in this way comparative literature came into being.

Culture and Nationalism :

                                        Comparative literature is the study of literature of two languages, of literature of two nations, of literature of two cultures. Our ideas changes through different ways of spectacles, when we change the spectacles our perspective changes. For example, there is one English novel “The Outsider” written by Albert Camus, this title is suitable or appropriate for him, but in Indian culture the same novel may be described under the title of “The Stranger”. Thus, it clearly suggests that cultures change with nations.

Conclusion:

                      While summing up, we may say that this is all over the process and information of comparative literature. But there is not any example of product, in real sense, the comparing things or objects. So, at last the example, which also includes the idea as comparing, is,

                                        “Kalidasa is the Shakespeare of India.”